Which Middle East nations have nuclear programmes, and how were they built?

The United States and Saudi Arabia have formalized a nuclear cooperation framework through a bilateral agreement signed on Wednesday. Under the arrangement, designated as a Section 123 agreement under US atomic energy law, American entities will be permitted to export nuclear technology to support Saudi Arabia's civilian nuclear development efforts. The accord represents a significant step toward Saudi Arabia's entry into the region's nuclear sector, though substantial details of the arrangement have not been disclosed publicly.

The agreement comprises two distinct components: a primary nuclear cooperation accord and a separate bilateral safeguards pact. While the specific provisions remain undisclosed, analysts suggest the safeguards mechanism may establish oversight procedures allowing American inspectors to monitor Saudi nuclear activities and verify that fuel enrichment remains within civilian reactor parameters rather than advancing toward weapons-grade levels. Both nations are signatories to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, though the International Atomic Energy Agency did not participate in the bilateral negotiations, raising questions about enforcement mechanisms.

US officials have emphasized non-proliferation commitments. Secretary of State Marco Rubio stated that the United States does not enter agreements creating proliferation risks. The arrangement will proceed to Congressional review, with a 90-day evaluation window before automatic implementation if not rejected.

Industry observers note that American nuclear technology firms, including reactor designer Westinghouse, stand to benefit commercially from the agreement. However, Saudi Arabia's status outside the Nuclear Suppliers Group—a 48-nation cartel controlling nuclear commerce—creates uncertainty regarding access to essential nuclear materials and technology required for programme implementation.